History Form I

SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF HISTORY

Meaning and Importance of History

Background of the topic

History is an academic subject taught as part of a primary and secondary education. This chapter tackles the significance of history as a discipline in both primary and secondary levels. It gives the basics of history and lays a solid foundation of this subject. It traces the different definitions of history, the importance of studying history as a subject as well as the different ways by which information that constitutes history is obtained.

THE MEANING OF HISTORY

Explain the meaning of History

Definitions of history

Various definitions have been put forward to define history as a discipline some of them are:

• History is a record of events pertaining to human activities, his social, economic and political development from the past the present and the future.
• History refers to the study of past events, present situation and prediction of the future or it is the study of changes in the process of material production.
• History is defined as knowledge that entails chronologically presented narrations about human activities pertaining to social, economic, technological and political aspects from the past to the future.

In general history can also refer to an academic discipline which uses a narrative to examine and analyze the sequences of past events and objectively determine the patterns of cause and effect that determine them. It’s the record of human activities which enable man to survival and attain essential needs from the environment.

The basic needs of humankind include food shelter and clothing. Due to social, political, cultural, economic and technological transformations humankind's activities have to change from time to time.

Actions taken against nature aim to change natural objects into conditions that can satisfy human needs; these activities against nature are what we call material production. Material production includes can be observed in sharpening of sticks to make a spear, digging trenches to trap wild animals and many more.

THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING HISTORY

Explain the importance of studying History

Studying history is important because it allows us to:

• Understand how African societies were formed, how they developed and the factors that influenced this development. It also allows us to develop an understanding of the events, conditions and factors that shaped the past and those which have shaped the present conditions of the world in order to predict the future.
• Historical knowledge makes the present comprehensive which is why journalists and writers of sensational stories spend some time explaining the history of a particular incident; it is only when one knows the past of a person or an incident that the present can became meaningful.
• Develop an understanding and appreciation of the cultural, political, economic and technological advancements made by African societies before and after colonial ruler ship.
• Develop the basic skills of critical thinking, reasoning, judgment, empathy and effective participation in human developmental activities. Studying history also helps us to understand and appreciate the efforts made and strategies used by African people to regain their independence and resist neo-colonialism
• Develop, understand and appreciation the need for African unity, cooperation and interdependence, conflict resolution and effective participation in social, economic and political development of Africa. It also helps us to develop an understanding of the relationships between African’s development problems and foreign intrusion, colonial domination, cultural subjugation and economic exploitation at various stages in history.
• Acquire knowledge for its own sake as you enjoy a novel with fiction, a film with an interesting plot. It is not clear why people are interested in these ventures and in the same way people do enjoy to know the history of particular topics.
• Develop our patriotism, history students know their heroes and heroines and traitors. This make history a sensitive subject in places where political leaders are not sure of their legitimacy.
• Enlightens people about the advantages of certain economic practices for example, the way the development in the world today is measured by the industrial revolution that took place in Europe in 1750
• Understand the level of development at different stages of human development. Without history it is very difficult to determine or to tell what humans were doing in the past. Therefore, it is through history that one can extensively understand the level of development that humans have reached at in a given period in time.
• Helps us learn about technological transformations, for example primitive livelihood to advanced livelihood (using of stones and wood tools to iron tools)
• Understand how humans adapted to their environment and how the struggled to earn a living from the environment. This therefore looks at the long struggle of man by exercises of his reason to understand the environment and to act up on it.
• Understand the relationship that existed between humans, and between humans and the environment.
• Acquire skills in historical issues and becoming professionals in history, some people such as archaeologists and historians study history for career purposes.

SOURCES OF HISTORY

Identify sources of History

Sources of history refers to the avenues that can be used to get historical information. It requires an inter-disciplinary approach in order to get the actual historical information. Replying on a single source of history evidence will not satisfy your curiosity as one source links you to the other. It is therefore crystal clear that no single source of history can stand on its own.

Therefore, the following are sources of history/historical knowledge:

1. Oral traditions
2. Historical sites
3. Written records
4. Archives
5. Museums
6. Archaeology
7. Linguistic studies
8. Anthropology
9. Ethnographic sources

The Functions, Advantages and Limitations of the following Sources of History; Oral Traditions, Historical Sites, Written Records, Archives

Assess the functions, advantages and limitations of the following sources of history; oral traditions, historical sites, written records, archives

ORAL TRADITIONS

This refers to the history handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. It is usually done by talking and listening usually to elders who are believed to be more knowledgeable about past events. It is also the study of our past as revealed by what has been handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. Its manner of transmission differs from written sources thus making it a historical source of a special nature. Oral traditions are widely used in areas where people did not practice the art of writing.

Types of oral traditions

• Cultural practices e.g. art, music, religion riddles an jokes
• Proverbs, superstitions, poems and stories
• Narrations of past events (primary and secondary sources)

Advantages of oral traditions

Can easily be understood by everyone, oral traditions does not segregate; it can be understood by everyone. It is therefore convenient for both the educated and the uneducated as it only requires one to listen as long as it is in a language that everyone can understand.

It is accessible as in every area narrators are present,; here the historian is in better position to assess the value and his reliability source because he is working with the living people. At any time and place the historians or the person who is searching material can easily access the information as the information are available

It is cheap or costs less. Generally, elderly people are willing to provide information free of charge, this makes the source cheap. One does not need to pay his/her grandfather/mother in order for them to tell one a story. In many societies people used to sit beside a fire and the elders will tell them about what happened in the past and this was passed over from one generation to the other.

Helps in the reconstruction of history, it does require several sources in order to tell a story, oral traditions bridge the gap as it is provides evidence to written sources or primary source. Many historical sources including the most ancient ones were based on oral traditions.

It is two way traffic form of communication. This means that when someone does not understand questioning is possible, this therefore makes it a live and interactive source and interesting source of historical information.

Avails us with unwritten or undocumented history. Through oral tradition it is easy to reveal information which is not documented or recorded. In African history the major source of information is passed through oral traditions simply because much of what was taking place was not written down.

Bridges the gap left by other sources of history. As artifacts cannot talk it is oral tradition that does the talking there by filling in the gaps that might have been left by other sources.

Firsthand information. Many people who tell stories through different oral tradition are the primary source or the people who were present at the scene of the matter. This therefore means that the historian will be in a position of getting firsthand information from the respondent.

Disadvantages of oral tradition

Can easily be lost if someone who knows the data dies. In many societies it is the elderly who have the information which is passed over from generation to generation, in case the elder dies it means the information he/she had has disappeared with that person.

Language barrier. As oral tradition involves the passing down of history by use of the word of mouth, the problem of a language barrier is a big hindrance. For example, a person who might have valuable information might be using a language the historian does not understand this therefore will limit the process of communication.

Cannot stand on its own. Poems, stories, jokes etc. do not tell history directly they simply contain valuable information of how people produced and reproduced themselves leaving out the important aspects of the historical touch. It therefore gives the historian a hard time to supplement and analyze the given information critically.

Their reliability is rather problematic. It is impossible to judge how much is true history and how much only folklore fiction, legends and myth. This can be evidenced in the stories that are told to young children for example stories of the hare, the lion and many others. Therefore, it is difficult to distinguish what is the fact and what is imaginary.

Conscientiousness of that person. Is he/she transmitting them the way he heard them or he corrected them for some purpose or other. It is very difficult to understand if someone is telling you the event as he was told or is he adding in other information.

Variation in language. In some instances different languages might have similar words but with differing meanings. This will therefore result confusion on the side of the historian or researcher as some of the information might be lost.

Most of narrations are centered on people of status in society. Kings, chiefs, queens are often talked about in such stories, there is often little consideration about the masses.

Its preservation in many societies mainly depends on the power of the memories of successive generations of human beings. All oral traditions are influenced by the culture of the society that produce them, this means that the traditions that exist in a given society chiefly depend on the political organization of a given society.

Other disadvantages include:

• Can also pass over immoral cultural acts.
• Translation might be difficult because some languages have become extinct.
• It requires too much patience, attention and the power of the memory.
• Usually is limited to a given locality and to recent information.
• Easily awakens hatred amongst different societies.
• Full of biases.
• It can be time consuming if the narrators are in accessible.

HISTORICAL SITES

These do contain remains which show humanity's physical development, activities and the tools they made and used. The major function of historical sites is to make historical facts more practical.

There are two types of historical sites namely;

• Areas with physical remains of man and his artifacts.
• Ancient towns with both ruins of old buildings and old buildings which still exist.

Examples of historical sites with physical remains of man and his artifacts include the following:

• Olduvai Gorge, Isimila, Engaruka and Kondoa Irangi in Tanzania.
• Nsongezi, Biggo, Ntusi and Magogi in Uganda.
• Olorgesailie Gilgil and Lake Turkana in Kenya.
• Koobi for a in Ethiopia.
• Ingombe-Ilede in Zambia.
• Ishango in the D.R.C.

On the other hand examples of ancient towns in Africa with ruins of old buildings and existing old buildings include:

• Timbuktu, Gao, Jenne and Audaghost in West Africa.
• Bagamoyo, Zanzibar and Kilwa in Tanzania.
• Lamu and Mombasa in Kenya.

Through the study of historical sites we can reveal the works of art by previous generations for example rock paintings etc. As time elapses more historical sites are being discovered due to extensive research being carried out. The remains that are discovered in the historical sites are worked on by archaeologists.

The major function of historical sites is to represent actual materials of man’s existence and preserving the material remains of man for the coming generation, plus acting as symbol of social heritage and referral point to the society that are concerned.

Advantages of historical sites

As a symbol of social cultural heritage of different societies. Here the society concerned will be symbolized in the site.

Historical sites do break the boredom that is evidenced in the theoretical nature of history as a discipline. In this sense history is given a practical touch as people can see or observe what they were studying practically for example past human tools, rock paintings and human remains.

Helps in the building or the reconstruction of history, as they bridge the gaps that might have been left by other sources.

The sites also act as a source of revenue for both the government and private individuals. This is achieved when they act as center of tourism, and when the tourists visit.

The sites act as avenues for research for archaeologists and other scientists. People who carry out research in regards to man’s past will use historical sites as their libraries and laboratories, for example Dr. Leakey and his wife.

Generally, discoveries from historical sites can be used to reveal past settlement patterns, levels of technology, economic development and political organization reached past societies in different times and environments.

Disadvantages of historical sites

It brings confusion to interpret the remains found in the historical sites, for example, rock paintings can bring about different interpretations between historians.

Historical sites cannot stand on their own to tell history. This means that historical sites do not fully cater for all historical information required even for societies without documented history.

History found in the sites cannot be interpreted by everyone and requires a qualified personnel to interpret the information.

Historical sites are located in remote areas which are not accessible. This makes it time consuming and expensive working on them. Places where the historical sites are located are often also poorly developed.

The historical sites may disappear, as they are often destroyed by natural hazards and changes in the earth like weathering and denudation.

Many of the sites are selected on the basis of probability, for example it is assumed that early man lived in caves where there was water nearby and plenty of animals to hunt, fish or catch. This therefore brings in the issue of try and fail that in turn becomes costly in terms of time and resources

.

Examples of historical sites in East Africa include:

• Nsongezi- western Uganda
• Magosi- eastern Uganda
• Biggobyamugenyi (Biggo)- central Uganda
• Lolui, Mubende in Uganda
• Rusinga Island- southern Uganda
• Olorgesailie- Kenya
• Lake Rudolf- Kenya
• Njoro in Kenya
• Bagamoyo- Tanzania coast
• Kilwa- Tanzania coast
• Isimila- central Tanzania
• Kondoa- central Tanzania
• Lake Eyasi southern Tanzania
• Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania etc.

WRITTEN RECORDS

This refers to the history which has been written down or documented. This is the most common and modern source of history as it cuts across different boundaries. It is the principle source of materials for historians in east Africa as they have been valuable for the past 200 years or less. The written records are grouped into two the primary sources and secondary sources as for the historians it is better to first deal with the secondary source and then handle the primary sources.

Written records include: Books, letters, magazines, newspapers, minutes of meetings, official and private documents, official publications by the governments and parliaments of the colonial powers, peace treaties and other agreements concluded by the great powers between one another and African chiefs, legislative acts, edicts, dispatches of the colonial administration, documents from African companies and individual merchants, letters etc.

It also include books written by contemporaries, produced by aliens, narrative of explores, reminiscences of soldiers, missionaries or colonial officials, the impressionistic sung of the journalists and the imaginative reconstruction of the novelists. The written records can easily be accessed in the libraries, schools, colleges, archives and in some offices.

Functions of written records

Reconstruction of history, history can be reconstructed through a multidisciplinary approach. The written records play an important role of constructing history as they do bridge the gaps that might be left by other sources.

To collect and preserve written historical information, as this is the modern and most common source of historical information it plays the function of preserving written records so that those who come in the future will also be able to use this source of historical information.

Advantages of written records

Covers a wide section of ideas and different views. Different aspects concerning different views can easily be accessed in one written material for example a text book can contain historical information concerning different aspects and areas. Therefore, this simplifies the work of the historian as he will concentrate on that one source and discover a variety of given information. Therefore, it’s true to say that written records cover a wide coverage as different aspects can be commented up on.

It is easily accessible, as almost all areas have books, written materials are like a stone thrown into a pull causing ripples that flow out right across its surface. This therefore means that in at least any place there is at least a written source of something. In addition to that written records are easy to keep and to retrieve, the accessibility therefore simplifies the work of the historian as she/he has the material at their disposal.

Usually well explained and well elaborated. Many written records for such as textbooks are well researched, explained and elaborated by the authors. This therefore gives the person using the source actual and vivid material. Usually contains well-researched and concrete data which gives confidence to the researcher or historian

Bridges the gap left by other sources. The written records as a source of historical information play an important role of bridging or filling in the gaps that have been left by other sources. As it is well known that no single source of history can stand on its own to tell history the written records do fill up the gap that other sources might have left. For example it gives evidences to oral traditions.

Cannot easily disappear. As in the case of oral traditions, if the narrator dies the historical information is most likely to follow him on the deathbed, for written records this is not the case as material that is written down is very difficult to fade away as it is documented and usually in many copies.

It is very helpful when carrying out research. For research purposes the most helpful source can be found in written records as it has guidelines, which help the researcher in his/her research. As the information in most cases is well researched and elaborative this gives the researcher ample time in his research.

Easy to get valuable and rare information. It is mainly from written sources that valuable and rare information can be obtained. Many written records are very important as they provide evidence were needed.

Easy to make references. If written material is well organized; many of the written sources act as reference material for the different needs and written records as a source of reference.

Disadvantages of written records

It is expensive. Written records require a lot of time and resources to prepare, this makes them expensive to produce as compared to oral tradition. Also purchasing the written material is very costly.

Can easily be distorted or misunderstood. As written records are in most cases written in English which recipients might easily misunderstand? Also there might be distortion in the sense that writers might be biased when writing or they might have different approaches on to the same issue.

Applicable to educated people only. Written records are limited to a few people in a society. As the people who do not know how to read and write will not benefit from this source of history as he/she will not understand what has been written. This therefore makes it limited to a given section of people.

Based mainly on the writer's opinion. Many writers are biased in the sense that they write in their favor of example Eurocentric and Afro centric ideas.

Historians cannot be expected to come to the same conclusion, this therefore means that written records are continuously rewritten and revised Unless the historian is able to sort out relevant information many written records contain some information that might be irrelevant to the historian there by wasting a lot of time in a given source. Generally, it is very difficult to understand history unless you understand the historian himself first.

ARCHIVES

This refers to collections of private and public documents. This means the place where such documents are kept or found. Archives are collections of public and private documents.

They includes books, and the written records of early missionaries, explores, traders and colonialists kept in books or files. Examples of archives include: Arusha in Tanzania, Entebe national archives in Uganda. They also contained current records of government, parties and other organizations. The major function of archives is to collect and preserve historical information

Advantages of archives

It is the best method of collecting and preserving historical information. Most written documents which do contain historical information are preserved in the archives for future use.

It archives a variety of information. It is very easy to get historical information of different people and issues at a given time without wasting time and resources.

Getting firsthand information is possible, as the documents in archives are the extract materials that were written by the people concerned. For example political parties documents, memories etc.

It is very easy to get and identify the exact date of historical events, such as the travels of Vasco Da Gama, African resistance, the scramble for and partition of Africa plus many other important occurrences.

Understanding the ideas and the literacy level of the past is very easy. This can be done by analyzing the documents in archives and relating them with what we have at the present time and also borrowing ideas from them. For example a current government can use a document of a former government to recognize itself.

Disadvantages of archives

Preserving documents is very expensive. This therefore makes the source more expensive as compared to other sources. Keeping the documents in archives requires much attention and care.

This method is also discriminative, as it is only the literate (educated) that can utilize the information as it is usually written in a language that someone who is not educated might not understand.

Societies whose information was not documented will not be represented. Societies with no recorded past will not be represented.

Retrieving information from the archives is not easy, as it requires a lot of time and perseverance. This therefore makes it hectic on the side of the impatient historian.

Archives are not evenly distributed when compared to other methods like oral tradition. For example, in Tanzania one has to travel to either Dar es Salaam or Arusha in order to find an archive.

Generally, in the case of societies without history that is written down the archives is less meaningless as there is not any trace of their history in that place. This therefore means that such a community will have it history missing in action.

MUSEUMS

Museums are special places created for preserving historical information. These are places where information about people and past events are stored.

Specialists in a museum who help explain objects to the people are called Museum Curators. They date and arrange the remains and artifacts which demonstrate in the easiest way possible the technological, cultural, economic and social development of the people.

Museums are created to preserve historical information and also act as tourist centers. Museums contain a collection of all sorts of items which show cultural, social, political, technological and economic developments from the past to the present.

There national, regional, district and local museums of East Africa. Examples of museum in Tanzania are Kalenga in Iringa, Bujora in Mwanza and Halwego and Handebezyo in Ukerwe. In Kenya the Hyrax Hill museum site in Nakuru district, Kawanda in Uganda and many others.

Advantages of museums

They preserve the historical information and material, It is in the museum that many of historical remains are preserved for future use and referral.

They contain a variety of historical items. It is only in the museum that one can be find a variety of historical remains ranging from artifacts to written records and oral tradition. Therefore a museum is relatively important to historical study.

Museums provide objects that give history a practical touch, as they working as teaching aids. Students of history have the opportunity to put into practice what they study as they see the objects in museums.

It is possible to learn about the development of technology of early man from museums. The curators play an important role in explaining artifacts to the people and how they were used.

Museums arouse creativity and craftsmanship on the side of the learner. This comes about as the learner sees more and more remains and became more eager to discover more.

Note other advantages may include:

• Attracts tourists.
• Generating income for the people working in the museums and the government.
• Source of foreign exchange.
• Provision of employment for example the museum curators.
• Easy to identify the social, political and economic developments of a given society from the museum.
• Many of the museum act as the major source of information for those carrying out research for educational purposes.

Disadvantages of museums

They are very expensive to maintain and build. Starting up and maintaining a museum requires a lot of funds. Obtaining and maintaining artifacts is also relatively expensive.

Require skilled manpower to operate. Museum curators should have historical bearings and know about the artifacts in the museum.

Distortion of historical information, in the museum is possible when the curator is biased. The curator will therefore distort the historical information, as he is subjective in the way he interprets the historical facts.

Attitude of the people affects the museum so much that some museums have been forced to be closed. People are not visiting museums due to unknown reasons, a case in point the Hyrax site museum in Kenya says that it receives only 10-20 customers on a busy weekend which is very small number compared to the inputs in the museum.

Poor preservation of artifacts, for example the pieces of cloth, chains if not well handled can distort the information and the relevance of the historical facts. Due to poor preservation many museums have lost their historical artifacts to the fires other unforeseen circumstances costing them dearly.

ARCHAEOLOGY

This refers to the science that deals with the study of past materials historical remain of man. Or it is a study of artifacts that have been dug from the earth. Artifacts are the remains of the material culture made by the people of the past. People who study archaeology are called archaeologists.

Archaeologists like Dr. Leaky have concentrated on the period of early man; others like Dr. Posnansnky have worked on sites relating to the Chwezi Empire, Chittick and Kirk man have excavated coastal sites of the 12th -16th centuries. How they carry out their excavations is a long story.

Excavation is a long and laborious process as each piece of the material found has to be examined carefully and recorded so that the archaeologists can give a complete reconstruction. A historian studies the artifacts with the hope of reconstructing patterns of settlement, level of technology and skills acquired by the inhabitants of the site after excavating them.

Archaeologists removes layer after layer carefully recording all what they find and in try to explain the relationship between the different objects.

The major function of archaeology is that it reveals important information about man through the different stages of his transformation. Not only that but also plays the function of arousing curiosity of searching past historical information on the side of historian.

Advantages of archaeology

It provides evidence or authenticity on to historical facts, as the remains are examined thoroughly by the concerned there by supplementing the other sources which might be lacking evidence.

Knowledge of artifacts is exposed after excavation. For example pottery, building, rooting plus telling us a great deal about the life and culture of the people long ago through uncovering the buried objects.

Archaeology simplifies the past as it helps us to know the past relationships between different people such as in trading activities immigration, emigration, birth and death plus political relations.

It is probably the only source that can help us in knowing when and how people lived in a certain place and at what time. This is attained through the use of carbon dating which is a scientific method of finding out the age of dating objects and artifacts.

Archaeology helps us to reveal the technology, pastoral agriculture and commercial activities of the past societies. This is achieved through cross examining the remains excavated by the archaeologists.

Archaeology is relatively important in supplementing facts that are given by other sources of history. As no source can stand on its own to tell history, therefore it can be reconstructed by the use of archaeology.

Disadvantages of archaeology

Archaeology demands much patience. Many artifacts are fragile and delicate which calls a lot of care in the handling of for example fossils.

It involves many processes to obtain data out of remains. For example in excavations require radioactive elements and many other procedures which make the process very expensive.

Archaeology consumes a lot of time. The archaeologists or researchers take a lot of time during the preparation for excavation, testing the artifacts and in the interpretation of the data.

The remains that are excavated cannot tell the full details of a given historical phenomenon. It is therefore clear that one cannot fully depend on archaeology as the complete source of history.

Generally, the first discovery of an archaeological find or of an archaeological site is commonly found by an ordinary person who does not have the techniques of excavating the remains.

During the excavation process remains of less historical importance for example a richly furnished royal tomb, works of art of great beauty are not seen as important. Excavation is not a treasure hunt, what they are seeking for is knowledge, information and data which will enable them fill up the picture of the past more accurately.

LINGUISTIC STUDIES

This means the study of language. It refers to study and analysis of languages, their sounds, structure and formation. There is a relationship between the different and various language groups. It is believed that people who speak the same language have been in close contact in the past. Linguistics can suggest approximately when and how the language spoke in East Africa came into existence.

Languages are never static but constantly changing and adapting some survive while others die. For proper classification and grouping the people of East Africa the work done by the linguistics is a principal way. Many linguists insists that the original language of mankind consisted of a few short words, possibly not over 200, since many now use only about 300.

Advantages of linguistic study

Linguistic studies are a lubricant of oral tradition, as it is through oral tradition that given information is acquired from the different sources. This therefore shows the interconnectedness between different sources of history.

Through the linguistics it is possible to tell the possible origin of our languages and how the languages have been distorted. As languages that we do use need to be understood in order to understand who we are and where we are going.

Bridging the gaps left by other sources. Linguistic studies assist in bridging the gaps that are left by other sources. Basing on the fact that the reconstruction of history requires an interdisciplinary approach therefore linguistic studies are relatively important like other sources.

Assists in the development of language. It assists in the discovery of different links between the people of a given communities. Through the use of languages it’s possible to say that at one time the people in the world lived together due to the similarity of some words in the different languages.

Language barrier is the major factor that is limiting linguistics. It is clear that not everyone understands all the different languages. It is therefore possible that useful historical information might not be understood due to the language problem.

It might result to the omission of some important information, thereby creating a gap in historical information. In the process of translating given historical information from one language to another

It is expensive in terms of time and money, because is not easy to learn a given language this therefore means that one has to take a given period of time and resources in terms of finance to learn a given language.

It can easily be diluted by external influences. Different languages have been influenced by external forces which causes those languages to change drastically from their original forms and this therefore disturbs the historian in his effort to reconstruct history. For example many Swahili words have been mixed with other languages.

ANTHROPOLOGY

This is concerned with the study of existing social institutions and their relationships. The scientific study of the origin, behavior, physical, social and cultural development of humans. The study is concerned with present day societies but much of it can be used in interpreting the past especially where we have a good reason to believe on that societies in certain areas have not altered so much in recent times.

It is no coincidence that anthropology has its roots in the Renaissance; it is a discipline that is firmly grounded in the modern era, no longer drawing on metaphysics but instead looking to the here and now of human existence. Combining philosophical ambitions with physiological and psychological questions, thus from its beginning, anthropology looked at issues which are today considered medical, psychological and philosophical as well as anthropological in the modern sense.

An anthropologist is a person who studies the above aspects of society; he has to live among those people and learn their culture thereby enabling him to understand the aspects of life of a certain society and to determine the truth about that society.

Advantages of anthropology

Helps the historian to find traces of the past in the present social structures of the society. Therefore using the current reliable information helps us to understand how the past was.

Helps the historian to reconstruct the past elements of all cultures. The historian studies the information and research techniques used by the anthropologist to arrive at a certain conclusion.

Generally, anthropology enables a comparison of social institutions of various societies which helps the historian in tracing the original homeland of social features.

Disadvantages of anthropology

A comparison of the social institutions of various societies over a wide area might indicate the influence of one culture upon another and the time when these cultures developed and spread which may create misunderstanding and hatred between the different societies

The works of anthropology are very limited to time and environment. In the present people may be living in a condition far different from what their ancestors lived; in the long run the anthropologist will not get the necessary information required in his study.

The knowledge of the anthropologist in this case is very important as one can easily exaggerate or underestimate or interpret basing on his knowledge a thing that will affect the whole process of trying to reconstruct history. This therefore means that objectivity of history does not mean objectivity of facts but interpretation.

This method is too tiresome. The anthropologist has to live among the people and learn their culture which enables him to understand all the different aspects of life of a given society and to determine whether it is authentic and worth studying.

ETHNOGRAPHIC SOURCES

This is another source of history which is not commonly used and usually neglected by many scholars however, it is relatively important as other sources. Ethnographic evidence does involve two aspects the material and immaterial.

The material things in nature are the artifacts while the immaterial include culture, custom and beliefs or cultural evidence which is written down. Under this the historian is mostly interested in cultural documents because of the unique characteristics as they are timeless

NOTE: As already elaborated no single source of history can stand on its own to tell history but rather it requires interdisciplinary approach for successful history reconstruction. This means that no source is better than the other on the side of the historian carrying out his/her research in any field of study but rather each supplement the other.

DATING IN HISTORY

Refers to the assigning of dates or time on given historical events or facts, to record history properly a good knowledge of dating or calendar is needed. Historians divide time into seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, age, periods, centuries, millennia and generation.

A decade is a period of ten years. A century is a period of hundred years. Millennium is a period of thousand years. A generation is the average of time between one groups of period in a family to another group of family. Period is determined by one continuous event, which is in year.

Age refers to a period based on man’s activities and the types of tools that are being used. In history there are different ages namely:

• Stone age
• Iron age
• Industrial age
• Nuclear age
• Copper age
• Bronze age

WAYS OF DETERMINING DATES

There are two sets of ways to determine dates.

• Local methods
• Scientific methods

Local methods are simple methods whereby dates are fixed through;

• recalling facts relating events
• tracing family chronologies
• tracing the origin of languages

Scientific methods involve experiment in laboratories whereby material remains are studied through such processes as;

• Radio Active Dating (Radio metric)
• Radio Carbon Dating (Radio Carbon 14)

Dividing time is in starting of 0, which is the year when Jesus Christ was born .A.D. (Anno Domino) is the years after the birth of Jesus Christ and they are known as years of the Lord. B.C. are years before the birth of Jesus Christ. (Before Chris)

Muslims start their calendar at Hijra A.H (Al Hijra or after Hijra) this is when Prophet Muhammad S.A.W fled from Mecca to Medina in order to spread Islam in the year 622 A.D.He was born in the year 570 A.D. and died in the year 632 A.D.

Historians use chronological order of events, periods and ages such as family tree, time lines, time charts and time graphs to tell time.

TABLE SHOWING TIME PERIODS AND THEIR DURATION

1 day	24 hours
1 week	7 days
1 year	12 month
1 month	4 weeks
1 year	365 days
1 decade	10 years
1 century	100 years or 10 decades
1millennium	1000 years or 10 centuries
A generation	A group of people born in the same period, or it refers to the average differences in age between a child and his/her parents.

METHODS OF DATING IN HISTORY

Carbon 14

This is the scientific method of determining dates in history and it is the most common and modern method of determining dates in history. The archaeologists commonly use this method after discovering remains.

Radiocarbon dating

During the life time all living animals and vegetable matter absorbs a minute amount radioactive carbon (carbon 14) from the atmosphere. After death the level of carbon 14 in the object gradually declines at a steady, measurable rate. Thus by measuring the amount of carbon 14 in ancient fragments of the former living matter such as born or charcoal, scientists are able to calculate the approximate age of the object. The results are never very accurate but they are an invaluable aid to the archaeologists concerning more with the chronology than with the very precise dates.

Language dating

Historical events can be dated by the use of language. Here some word used in a given language can help to understand when a given event occurred. For example in Kiswahili there are some words that are used that they do tell when a given events took place for example the use of the word ‘Karafuu’ marks the beginning of the use of cloves in East Africa.

Remembering changes and event dating

Events can help in dating history for example famine, harvesting period, tsunami, hurricanes etc. By using these changes one is able to tell what event took place and also reflect the time at which that event took place.

Order of event dating

This shows the arrangement of events in series for example family and clan chronology (family tree), chronological order of events (time line, time graph and time chart)

TIME LINE

1	2	3	4	5	6
300 BC	200 BC	100BC	100 AD	1000 AD	1800

TIME CHART

COLUMN I	COLUMN II
PERIOD (YEARS)	EVENTS
1000AD	The discovery of iron
1498	Vasco Da Gama arrived at the cape
1500	Emergence of Ntemi system of organization
1698	Fall of fort Jesus
1700	End of Portuguese rule in East Africa
1741	Mombasa establishes itself as an independence sheikhdom
1840	Sultan Said shifts his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar
1800	The industrial revolution in Europe
1900	Signing of the Buganda agreement
1961	Independence of Tanganyika
1964	The Zanzibar revolution
1992	Multiparty politics in Tanzania
1999	Death of Mwl. Julius Nyerere

A FAMILY TREE

A TIME GRAPH

EVOLUTION OF MAN, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Evolution of Man

EARLY STONE AGE

The Types of Tools Used during the Old Stone Age

Describe the types of tools used during the Old Stone Age

This lasted from 1.5 million years up to 750,000 years ago. At this time man was involved in hunting and gathering that is their livelihood depended on collection of fruits, roots, vegetables and meat. The tools made at this time involved chopping tools, pebbles, and hand axes.

The tools made were not very sharp but important for defending themselves against wild animals and digging up plant roots

Some remains of these tools were found in East Africa in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Ologa and Nsongezi Rock shelter in Uganda

The Physical Changes of Man during the Old Stone Age

Describe the physical changes of man during the Old Stone Age

How Man Obtained Food during the Old Stone Age

Explain how man obtained food during the Old Stone Age

At this time man was involved in hunting and gathering that is their livelihood depended on collection of fruits, roots, vegetables and meat

MIDDLE STONE AGE

This is recorded from around 750,000 years to 50,000 years ago

During that time tools made were sharper compared to the Early or Old Stone Age.

The Types of Tools used during the Middle Stone Age and their Functions

Describe the types of tools used during the middle stone age and their functions

The Physical Changes of Man during the Middle Stone Age

Describe the physical changes of man during the middle stone age

How Man Obtained Food during the Middle Stone Age

Explain how man obtained food during the middle stone age

In order to fulfill their basic needs humans used stone tools like stone hammers, stone cores, sharp stone flakes that offered useful cutting edges, etc.

The Advantages of the Invention and Uses of Fire

Explain the advantages of the invention and uses of fire

NEW STONE AGE

The Type of Tools Used during the Late Stone Age and their Uses

Describe the type of tools used during the late Stone Age and their uses

It started from around 50,000 BC up to the first Millennium, while at this stage man used much sharper tools than in Early or Middle Stone Ages.

At this time man started farming and animal keeping. Due to that it was the time when man started to have settlements.

Another development at this time was painting and drawings for example in Caves, evidence of this can be seen in Amboni caves (Tanga), Kondoa (Dodoma) and Irangi (Singida)

The Physical Changes of Man during the Late Stone Age

Describe the physical changes of man during the late Stone Age

Major Changes in Man's Way of Life during the Late Stone Age

Appraise major changes in man's way of life during the late Stone Age

At this time surplus food was available, this facilitated the increase of the human population and the emergence of village settlements.

IRON AGE

This was the time when man started to make and use iron tools. Iron age in Africa started more on the first millennium in a few societies e.g. in East Africa, while other societies like western Sudan States (Ghana, Mali, Soghai), Axum, Egypt, Nubi, and Meroe for North Africa

How Iron was discovered

Explain how iron was discovered

The Advantages of using Iron Tools

Appraise the advantages of using iron tools

Iron Age helped societies to progress and develop more (that is it had more positive effects than negative effects) some of these effects were:

It created the division of labor in African societies e.g. some started working in local industries. Others became traders and crop producers.

It also increased the production of food crops in Africa. (This was due to the making of more useful farm equipment).

It helped with the formation of permanent settlements to those societies that adopted iron technology (crop producers).

Africa started to develop economically through activities such as industry, agriculture, mining and trading.

It also led to the expansion of states in Africa (stronger societies started to conquer other states) e.g. the Buganda and Ghana.

DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT

At the end of this topic student should be able to:

1. To tell what economic development is:
2. Identify the major economic activities practiced in pre-colonial African societies
3. To show how different economic activities were determined by the environment
4. Mention out the advantages and disadvantages of each of the different economic activities
5. Mention the benefits of exchanges and trade
6. Show on a map where the different economic activities were practiced in the different parts of East Africa
7. The effects of the different economic activities to man’s way of life and adaptation to the environment

Background and introduction:

This chapter will focus on the different economic levels of development achieved by man from the period of pre-history specifically enlightening on the three-litchis of the continent of Africa up to 19th century. Also to examine the factors that influenced the existed economic activities as well as the impact of such activities on the respective society

The economic activities in pre-colonial Africa

The environment as an entity does influence economic activities and there is a strong relationship between the environment and economic activities. Several economic activities developed amongst the different people of Africa ranging from:

• Agriculture which involved the growing of crops and rearing of animals.
• Handcrafts industries which depended on skills or hand to make and produce goods.
• Mining concerning with the process of extracting underground minerals for man’s use.
• Trading involving the buying and exchanging of goods and services.
• Fishing, lumbering, Hunting and gathering all these differed from area to area. Basing on the environment and the skills that the people living in a given community were gifted with.

AGRICULTURE

It is believed that in Africa, agriculture started about 6000 years ago. The use of discovered tools and weapons led to the development of crop cultivation and domestication of animals. True plant domestication probably began when the weakest plant were rejected and only seeds from the strongest plants were set aside for re-sowing mainly yielding grasses (cereals) and the same applied to animal domestication.

The Relationship between Agriculture, the Environment and Technological Development

Show the relationship between agriculture, the environment and technological development

Contributions of technological development to development of agriculture;

After a through look into different agricultural practices that existed in Africa, it is equally paramount to know the contributions of technology to the development of agriculture in Africa.

The increased use of iron tools amongst the different societies of Africa, led to the increase of land for cultivation, which resulted into increased agricultural productivity. The food storage skills insured an insurance against loss of future crops through natural disasters such as drought or flood thus food supply throughout the year. Some communities whose soils easily exhausted developed the use of manure which renewed the land and thus increased production. The development and use of irrigation opened up the once un-cultivatable to be productive for agriculture once again.

Not only did the technological improvement contribute to the development of agriculture but also the environment had the great bearing on the development of agriculture in Africa.

The reliable rainfall supplemented with the fertile soils in given areas resulted in the development of permanent crop agriculture or cultivation accompanied with increased agricultural production

Pest free and disease free areas were suitable for both crop and animal husbandry, as they would attract settlement. Also in place is the availability of iron technology in given societies making it possible for the making of iron tools which advanced on the methods of production and thus increased productivity?

It ensured man with reliable food supplies, the impacts of agricultural development are immeasurable as it ensured man with reliable food supplies, permanent settlement, labor specialization and surplus production and thus increase in population.

Farming was not suitable in every environment, the disadvantage of settled farming may also have been apparent through farming could support a larger population; it left the people more exposed to the dangers of famine caused by natural disasters such as drought and floods.

THE TYPES OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES IN AFRICA

Explain the types of agricultural practices in Africa

Different types of agriculture developed in the different African societies these included:

• Permanent crop cultivation
• Mixed farming
• Pastoralism
• Shifting cultivation

Successful agriculture depended on the ecology or natural fertility of the soil, adequate rainfall, technical skills of the famers and the ability to find most suitable and successful crops. However, this was not a simple task as it required patience and the ability to learn more from experience. It was the trial and error system.

Permanent crop cultivation

This involved the growing of perennial crops as potatoes, bananas, yam, beans and maize on a permanent basis. This was majorly employed in areas where there was extra land. Not every society could practice this form of agriculture but the environment dictated the terms.

Areas that received heavy and reliable rainfall were free from pests and diseases, having fertile soil did serve best for permanent crop cultivation. With the development of iron technology societies which practiced this moved from communalism to feudalism. In East Africa it was majorly practiced in the interlacustrine regions such as Buganda, Kagera Kenyan highlands, Ankole around Mount Kilimanjaro, parts of Kigoma and rungwe. In West Africa in the Fante, Yoruba, Ashanti, Ife and Akwam.

With the development of permanent crop cultivation people begn to live in larger, more permanent settlement, the permanence of settlement quickened the development of instrument production, there were increase in population as a result of improved diet, food supply became more regular and abundant, brought important social as well as technical changes many developed into centralised states for example Fante, Benin, Oyo and Meroe.

Lastly was the development of handcrafts industries such as iron smelting and social differentiation.

Mixed farming

This is an agricultural system which involves growing of crops and rearing of animals on the same piece of land. It evolved in areas which supported both pastoralism and crop cultivation. Crops grown in this agricultural practice included cereals such as millet, sorghum, cassava and maize animals kept included cattle, goats, sheep, cows and donkey.

The mixed farmers existed because the areas they lived had unreliable rainfall and their soils could easily be exhausted so one thing had to supplement the other. Mixed farmers in East Africa included the Gogo, Sangu, Sukuma, Kurya and Fipa in Tanzania, Luyia in Southwest Kenya, the Basoga and Gisu of Eastern Uganda. The relation of production was mainly communal with low production, division of labour based on age and sex

The mixed farmers in East Africa demonstrated achievement in their practices as they developed centralised political organisations for example the Busoga in Uganda under Omuloki, specialised in different activities. Specialisation in these societies resulted into development of trade, at first it was among the mixed farmers and later it resulted in the formation of long distance trade.

Shifting cultivation

This involves spending a given period of time working on land and moving from one area that is exhausted to a new fresh piece of land. It was mainly practiced by the people who lived in grassland plateaus for example Miombo wood land savanna in central Tanzania were the rainfall was little and unreliable and the soil could be easily exhausted

These soils could support the growth of cassava, sorghum, maize, millet, cowpeas, pumpkins plus many more other crops.the rearing of livestock was made difficult due to the fact that these areas were infected with tsetse flies and other livestock diseases. The soils that easily became exhausted necessitated people to move from one place to another in search of the fertile piece of land. However people in some communities were living a settled life even if they were practicing this type of agriculture.

Pastoralism

This involves the keeping of livestock. The herding of domestic animals (cattle, sheep or goats), which were real and potential source of food particularly; milk, meat, animal skins and the herds were also exchanged with the different neighboring societies.

Areas with semi-arid and arid conditions like scanty rainfall, (rainfall that is just enough to support the growth of pasture), poor soils which could only support pastoralism as the major economic activity within the area. In East Africa the dry areas include the lift valley areas of Tanzania and Kenya comprising of societies like the Maasai, Nyaturu, Barbaig and the karamanjong in Uganda.

Where the people were largely pastoralists their settlement tended to be less permanent as they moved in search of varying season pastures and water.

These people had no centralized political system they used the age set system in their production and they also kept large herds because of their use value and prestige.

How Agriculture Changed Man's Life

Explain how agriculture changed man's life

HANDICRAFTS, INDUSTRIES AND MINING IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

Handcrafts can be defined as the art of using your skills and hand to designs and fashion things, or it's an activity done with one’s hands requiring artistic skills. Such goods may include tools, baskets, and cloth to mention but a few. In pre-colonial Africa different hand crafts industries emerged as man specialized on to other activities apart from agriculture. These included iron making industries, basketry, spinning and weaving cloth making, carving, canoe making and many more.

The Meaning of Handcrafts, Industries, and Mining

Explain the meaning of handcrafts, industries, and mining

Mining industries:

Are industries which involve the process of extracting underground minerals such as copper, gold, tin and salt mining industries.

An industry is a place where transformation of raw materials into finished goods is carried out. The natural resources that existed in a given society determined the nature of industries to be found in a given area.

The Types of Industries and Their Advantages in Pre-Africa

Differentiate the types of industries and their advantages in pre-Africa

Types of industries

• Iron industries
• Salt making
• Copper industry
• Handcrafts industries

IRON INDUSTRIES.

The discovery of iron resulted in drastic socio-political and economic changes. The people who were dealing in iron were called blacksmiths a person whose job is to make and repair things made with iron, learns how to identify rocks containing iron ore.

In the way of trying to maintain monopoly over the knowledge of iron making it was kept as a secret and in many societies it was even ritualized (made a religious thing). Different society had different beliefs as many believed that the women were not allowed to furnace as it was presumed that the iron would be spoilt.

Methods of obtaining and processing iron:

Blacksmiths identified the rocks that were bore iron ore collecting them and smelting the iron found in the trenches or clay furnaces. They had to use charcoal fuel and maintained the high temperatures in the furnaces by fanning the live charcoal with bellows. The smelted iron was then shaped into different forms and tools like spear heads, knives, axes, panga and wire. The places where the iron industries were found included the Venda people of Northern Transvaal, the Mashona people of Zimbabwe, the Iteso of Eastern Uganda, along Kilambo falls, Futa Djalon, Meroe and many others.

SALT MAKING INDUSTRIES

Salt is not only a food ingredient but was also used to preserve food. The increased use of salt resulted into the development of trade and agriculture as salt led to more food production, the use of salt was found in almost all communities as it was important in different communities.

Methods of obtaining and processing salt:

There are four methods of obtaining and processing salt in different communities, these included:

Traditional method

Under the tradition method salt was obtained from the reeds growing in marshy areas, gathered, dried and burnt to ashes. The ashes were then collected, filtered and the liquid was boiled to evaporate, the residue was used as salt. The Manganja people settled along Lake Nyasa commonly used this method.

Mining of salt bearing rocks

Rocks contained salt was dug out and the crystals were used. In here the rocks that contain salt are identified and are dug out, it is probably the most commonly used method of obtaining and processing salt. Place were it is used include Kasese, Bilma, Taghaza, Katwe and many others.

Boiling and evaporation

Under this method as the spring waters boil underneath the earth's surface, they do evaporate and spill over the land surface where they cool to form salt crystals which crystals are used as salt. This was commonly practiced in Uvinza, Shinyanga and also among the Venda people.

Developed among the coastal regions

Along the coastal regions salty waters were trapped into pans and left to evaporate the heat of the sun. The crystals that did remain behind after the evaporation of salty waters were then used as salt.

GOLD INDUSTRIES

Gold is one of the most precious minerals and it was not found in every area as other minerals which makes it precious and valuable. The communities that mined gold showed drastic social, political and economic developments.

Methods of obtaining and processing gold

Panning method

This method was commonly carried out along the river beds where alluvial gold was extracted. It was somehow tiresome as people had to try several times in order to obtain the mineral. This method was common among the Sabi people living along river Zambezi

Shaft method

This method was commonly used in the areas with gold veins. Here the gold was dug out by using wooden, stone and iron hammers, then collected in wooden baskets and taken to furnaces were it was turned into different ornaments such as bangles, earrings plus many more.

COPPER INDUSTRIES

The copper industry is believed to be the oldest industry that existed in almost all pre-colonial African societies. Different societies did participate to the industries due to the fact that the copper existed in their communities.

Methods used in obtaining and processing copper

Identification of a copper belt

The copper was dug out and then taken to the furnaces where it was smelted. The smelted copper was turned into different tools which were relatively important to the society for example wire traps, knives axes etc. the areas that carried out this included places where the copper belt were found for example the Katanga copper belt and Kasese.

HANDCRAFTS INDUSTRIES

Cloth making industries (weaving and spinning):

These industries were concerned with making clothes and developed in areas where cloth making materials were available. Spinning and wearing, making of bark –cloth developed in areas with cotton and appropriate tree barks.

Famous spinning and weaving societies in Africa include Yoruba people of West Africa, Sumbawanga in Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique as well as the people found in Lake Rukwa valley in Tanzania as for bark cloth areas North of Lake Victoria, interlacustrine societies for example in Buganda they used the Mvule tree to make (Olubugo) bark cloth which was very expensive and it was only the rich and the nobles who could afford it.

Basketry and carpentry

Closely associated with agrarian societies whose style of life was more complex and sophisticated and in places that were privileged with palm and special reeds holding vessels specialised in the making of baskets and mats plus special leather work was needed for making leather clothes, sandals, bags, and beddings from animal skins and hides. It‟s associated with pastoralists such as Tuareg, Beja, Ajar, and Somali who made tents.

Canoe making

The art of making canoes developed in areas bordering lakes, rivers and oceans. Different societies who carried this had their major economic activity as fishing which in many cases supplemented agriculture.

This therefore means that nature of resources available in a given society determined the nature of handcrafts industry present in that society.

All in all the handcrafts and mining industries had far reaching effects to the communities and societies of pre-colonial Africa. Increased food production was evident as tools of production were improved through technological development. Trade was also increased as the volume of food traded and the demand increased. This in turn acted as a source of income to many societies which later rose socially, politically and economically more settled populations and communities new political system and organizations, the blacksmith became recognized, influential and famous people in society, the iron tools could dig and cut faster and deeper than the stone tools and many others.

TRADE IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

Trade refers to the exchange of goods or services with money or other goods or is the buying and selling of goods

The development of agriculture brought important economic changes as people were now able to produce surplus food which is more than needed to feed their own immediate family thus the surplus could be traded between neighboring settlement in exchange for raw materials luxuries and other items not produced within the community

It is clear that societies are not fully self-sufficient. Therefore, interactions say between pastoralists with cultivators and agriculturalists with craftsmen in order to exchange goods are required. The major means of distributions from one hand to another were through gifts, tributes and taxation.

The exchanges carried out were not aimed at getting profit but it was after the use value of commodities and also strengthening relations. For example a person who exchanged his cattle with millet was not in search of profit.

Before the emergence of groups of people who specialized in trade the exchange system was barter this involved the exchange of goods for goods.

As societies developed trade development was also inevitable basing on the fact that some societies were not having specific resources which could only be obtained through the exchange. Increase in surplus production supplemented with the development of industries, the presence of safe routes and the regional specialization not forgetting the love for adventure cemented the development and expansion of trading activities in pre-colonial Africa.

The expansion of trading activities resulted into two major types of trade emerging in pre-colonial Africa.

1. The local trade (internal exchange relations). This developed within given community.
2. Regional trade (long distance trade). Where there emerged groups of people who specialized and could buy goods from producers in order to sell them later at a profit.

The Uses of Different Types of Minerals in Pre-Colonial Africa

Explain the uses of different types of minerals in pre-colonial Africa

THE BASIS OF TRADE IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA

Explain the basis of trade in pre-colonial Africa

Local trade

This was conducted from the village among the homogenous community, it did not require specific places to act as a markets, and there was no need of middle men as goods passed freely from the hands of producers to consumers.

Many pre-colonial African societies at first developed this trade as it availed them with the commodities they needed with much ease. People living within a given community exchanged commodities amongst themselves in order to fill the missing link; for example, cultivators could exchange their food with the livestock from the pastoralists, other commodities exchanged included iron tools, ornaments, animal skins and agricultural produce.

Generally speaking, the exchange which started with the intention to cement the existing social bonds amongst the different societies resulted in the growth of several industries, simulation of production for goods required in the exchange. It also led to the increase in incomes of the people who actively participated in the trade, the emergence and development of relationships among people of different localities for example the Sukuma trading with the Maasai and also the availability of all goods in the community brought about by increased production and the expansion in the exchanges.

The Types of Trade, Types of Commodities and the Societies Involved

Identify the types of trade, types of commodities and the societies involved

Regional trade

Trade between East and Central Africa started from the 1st millennium AD as they traded in raffia cloth, ivory and hides, copper from Katanga exchanged with salt from Uvinza.

This was concerned with the exchange of goods with people from different regions. This called for specialization and dealt with the commodities which were relatively scarce and geographical unevenly distributed among the people of different ethnic groups. Regional trade involved different regions in the trading process. In East and Central Africa it came to be known as long distance trade while in West Africa it was called Trans Saharan trade.

Long Distance Trade

It is called long distance trade simply because it was carried out long distance as people/traders had to move for long distance going on exchanging goods with other societies and the major aim was to get profit for example a salt traders was exchanged salt foe hoes not because he wanted to use hoes but he wanted re sell them at a profit later.

Professional traders (trade being their major occupation) came from Yao, Chewa and Bissa of Central Africa. Imbangala and vimbundu from Angola, Dyula merchants and the Marabouts of West Africa. In East Africa the Nyamwezi, Yao and Kamba were famous long distance traders, through trading and supplying ivory, slaves and copper to the exterior of East Africa Indian ocean coast. This organisation required fixed places to act as markets and the use of middlemen as the entrepreneurs.

In East Africa it was mainly carried out during the dry season and during the rainy season they settled down for agricultural activities.

By the10th century AD the Yao and Chewa were exporting ivory and iron to the coast. The Shona of Zimbabwe exported ivory and gold to the coast which were then exported to the Far East and then return they imported glass wear, cowrie's shells, beads, cotton cloth and porcelain from the far and Middle East. They used organised caravans for security reasons and distance standard currency such as bars of iron or copper and slabs of salt.

The long distance trade was a blessing for many societies in East and Central Africa as it gave rise to the notorious and professional long distance traders like Tip Tippu, Mzilikazi, and Mlosi etc

In addition to that prominent rulers such as Muteesa of Bugnanda, Mirambo of Unyamwezi, Kimweri of Usambara and Mkwawa of the Uhehe were able to conquer and rule weaker and neighboring societies. All this was facilitated by the acquisition of fire arms and ammunition which were important commodities from the East coast.

Expansion and consolidation of various kingdoms for example Buganda, Bunyoro, Yao and Nyamwezi led many of the participants to became very rich and famous from the huge profits that were enjoyed from the trade.

The trade acted as a stepping stone for the spread of Islam in the interior of East Africa. Many of the traders preaching Islam at the same time carrying their trading activities. Slave trade paved its way to the interior as the interior was exposed to traders.

The Trans Saharan Trade

Trans Saharan trade is also sometimes referred to as caravan trade. It was carried out across the Sahara desert. The trade involved different zones ranging from forest i.e. involving the forest states such as Benin, Oyo, Kanem Bornu and many more, the savannah belt which involved the Western Sudanic states such as Ghana, Mali and Songhai, the Sahara desert and the North Africa, the Mediterranean world and Europe.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE TRANS SAHARAN TRADE (CAUSES)

The introduction and use of the camels, which were introduced in Africa during 100A.D. Camels replaced horses and donkeys as they were more resistant to desert conditions and could also move faster to the desert. This therefore facilitated the development of the trade as a more efficient means of transport had been introduced

Political development that during the 7th and 16th century. This includes the Western Sudanic states whose rulers promoted the expansion of the trade. They ensured this by giving a leading hand, security, freedom of movement and also encouraging people to prepare the goods that were necessary in the trade a thing that did not existed before.

The conquest of North Africa by the Arabs, between 641 and 708 the Arabs conquered North Africa, as traders naturally they introduced their trading system and on top of that they increased the use of camels in North Africa and in the Sahara desert.

Development of production, in various regions of the Sudanic zone the production increased it meant that the supplies of commodity to be used in the trade were available. As no single community is self-sufficient this meant that the different communities had to depend on each other for various raw materials and goods.

Organization of the trade:

commodities used; different regions had different commodities that they concentrated on, from Europe and Muslim North Africa included manufactured goods, textile, copper, silver, woolen garments, brass, tin and horses

From the Sahara were salt mined at Bilma, Taghaza, Taoden, Idjil and Awlil, copper mined at Takkeda, tobacco and dates inclusive.

The savannah region had millet, sorghum, wheat, gum and ostrich feathers and livestock as well as gold that were mined from Wangara.

The forest zone was well known for gold mines at Akan and Lobi, kola nuts, ivory and the slaves.

The first medium of exchange was the barter system where goods were exchanged for goods but as the people became professional traders the medium of exchange also changed the traders started using cowries and at a later stage they started using the French franc and then the Spanish and Australian dollars.

As caravans were organized they had to follow specific trade routes that gave them a sense of direction on their way through the trade. The major trade route that was used included;

• From Ghat and Tripoli to Ehyot.
• From Ghana to Morocco via Audaghast.
• From Timbuktu to Tunis via Taghaza.
• From Borno to Tripoli.
• From Kano to Tunis and Tripoli via Agades.
• From Timbuktu to Tunis via Wangala, Ghademes and Ghat.

The Impact of the Following Types of Trade: Local Trade, Regional Trade

Appraise the impact of the following types of trade: local trade, regional trade

Impacts of the Trans Saharan Trade

Contributed to the formation of West African states and kingdoms, the profits that were raised from trade helped in the development of different states, these were got through the taking over charge or control over the trade routes and every one using that route had to pay tax or tributes.

For example Ghana Empire conquered Audaghast in 990 A.D. in view of controlling the salt mines in that area, Mali and Songhai extended their control as far as Taghaza and Takedda for economic reasons. It is therefore true to say that trade facilitated the rise and consolidation of the different states.

The spread of Islam was greatly accelerated by the Trans Saharan Trade in West and North Africa. The traders were serving two masters at a go as they were traders and also acted as teachers of Islam (evangelists) a thing that improved on the literacy rates in the region.

Growth of towns and cities, due to the trade many areas which were once villages turned into towns in what is known as urbanization. Small villages turned into large towns and cities such as Kumbi Saleh, Gao, Kano, Jenne, Timbuktu plus many others.

Improvement of political administrations, the caravan trade also improved political administration of the different kingdoms through the use and employment of well-educated Muslim traders who had been attracted by the trade. Many of the states were also applying the Islamic ways of administration in their different areas or jurisdiction

Exploitation of natural resources, as the influx of the Whites increased, this marked the beginning of the exploitation of natural resources that were endowed in Africa. It is also believed that this was the time of unequal exchange between Africa and Europe began.

Provision of constant and regular source of income, The attractive profits from trade provided constant and regular source of income for the different states. This was mainly raised from the custom duties that imposed on the imports and over goods of great political importance such as horse and the different metals that were imported into the state.

Trade also provided the sources for undertaking wars of conquest and expansion through the supply of effective means of war fare, such as horses and metals that could be used in the making and designing arms as spears, arrows head and axes.

The Trans Saharan Trade

This was the trading relation between the people of Western Sudan (Sudanic/Savannah region) and the people of North Africa passing across the Sahara desert. Camels were used as the means of transport during this trade. Societies that participated in the Trans Saharan Trade included;

• The Berbers of North Africa and brought them to West Africa via the Sahara desert.
• The Arabs and the European stationed in the Mediterranean costs of North Africa. These supplied goods to the Berbers and Tuaregs who in turn sold them to the people of West Africa. The said Arabs and purchased the items brought from West Africa.
• The West African tribes of both the Sudanic region and the forest regions to include the Mandika, Fulani, Hausa, Edo etc. these supplied items to the Berbers and Tuaregs who crossed the Sahara and purchased the items brought from North Africa.

Commodities involved

From North Africa the commodities were:

• Cotton and silk clothes
• Swords
• Guns and gunpowder
• Horses, etc.

From West Africa the commodities were:

• slaves
• ivory
• ostrich feathers
• kola nuts
• Gold
• Salt
• Food stuff

Trans Saharan trade was firstly carried out through barter system and there after some media of exchange like cowries shells, silver, coins, etc. replaced the barter system.

Trade routes

The Trans Saharan Trade was carried out via the routes namely:

• The western routes
• The Central route
• The Eastern route

The Western route emerged from Fez in Morocco via Siljilmasa, Taghaza, Taoden, Walata, and Audaghost up to Timbuktu. This route was famous because of salt mines at Taghaza and gold mines Wangara.

The central route emerged at Tunis in Tunisia via Tuat, Taotek, Tadmekket, Timbuktu, Gao, and Kano up to Katsina.

The Eastern route to the other hand emerged from Triplin in Libya, Alexandria and Cairo in Egypt to Bilma via Murzuk, Ghat and Agades. This route was significant because of salt mines in Bilma.

Factors for growth of Trans Saharan Trade

Several factors contributed to the growth and development of Trans Saharan trade. These include:-

• Political stability in both North Africa and West Africa, hence a conducive ground for the trade activities to flourish.
• The desire by European traders of such items as ivory, gold and slaves which were to be obtained only from Western Sudan.
• The desire of European commodities by the people of Western Sudan.
• Production of surplus commodities such as kola nuts, salt, fish and other food stuffs in Western Sudan. These had to be exported to other regions including North America.
• The introduction and use of camels as animals of transportation, these were able to carry huge quantities than horses and human porters. They were also tolerable in desert conditions.

Factors for the fall of Trans Saharan Trade

By the second half of the 19th century, the Trans Saharan trade was almost collapse of this trade was a result of the following factors:

• Introduction of trans-Atlantic trade which altered the trade route of Trans Saharan Trade.
• The emergence of other sources of salt and gold needed by European traders due to opening up of mines in the Americas.
• Scarcity of water in the desert discouraged the voyages via the desert.
• Eruption of wars (jihad) in the Maghreb region particularly Morocco. This disrupted the trade.
• Colonization of West African states by European powers in the last quarter of 19thcentury deteriorated the trading relations with North Africa

Effects of the Trans Saharan Trade

The Trans Saharan Trade had to a lot of effects as follows:-

• It led to development and growth of towns and cities in both North Africa and the Western Sudan, example being Walata, Kano, and Timbuktu etc.
• It led to emergence of rich merchants classes in Western Sudan as these merchants accumulated a lot of wealth from the trade.
• It led to the spread of Islam, Arabic culture and language in Western Sudan.
• It led to intermarriages between the people of Western Sudan, the Arabs and Afro Arabs from North Africa.
• It led to the growth and consolidation of Sudanic states namely Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem Bornu.vi. It stimulated the state of warfare between Western Sudanic states and forest states due to the desire for slaves.

MINING AND HAND CRAFT INDUSTRIES

Mining

This is the extraction of minerals from the underground parent rocks. By the period before and around the 19th century, minerals that were being mined in Africa include the following:-

• Copper
• Gold
• Iron
• Bronze
• Silver
• Salt.

Most of the minerals were to be taken to handcraft industries where they were then processed into different items. Some other minerals such as salt were to be consumed directly while some other minerals were to be used as media of exchange in trading activities.

Prominent areas in Africa where mining activities were being practiced include the following:-

• Katanga in Zaire where there were copper mines.
• Tshikapa in Zaire, Machili, Lusu, Klambo falls and Ingombe ilede.
• Gokomere, Mabven, Malapiti and Chivi in the Limpompo valley of Zimbabwe iron wasmined.
• Mashona and Matebele lands in Zimbabwe as well as Ashanti in Ghana where gold wasbeing mined.
• Uvinza in Western Tanzania and Taghaza in Mauritania where there were extraction ofsalts.

Hand crafts industries

These were factories that manufactured different items through the use of machines operated manually (by hand). Such industries include those that dealt with metal works namely:

• Iron processing industries
• Copper processing industries
• Salt making industries

The said metal working industries were mainly located near their respective mining areas. Prominent societies that were experts in metal works include:

• The people of Chipembe, and Kalomo in Zambia, the people of Mwavarambo,Phopo and Nkope Bay in Malawi as well as the Yoruba and the Edo of Nigeriawho were experts in iron smelting industries.
• The Shona and Ndebele of Zimbabwe, the Akan and the Asante of Ghana whowere famous in gold coast smithing industries.
• The Manganja of Malawi and the people of Taghaza were experts in salt making industries.

Other industries apart from metal work industries dealt with cotton and raffia cloth making among the Fulbe, the Felleme and Trakrur of Senegal and among the societies Guinea and Zimbabwe.

Other industries were those dealing with Basketry, Pottery and wood carving. Wood carving industries were common among the Makonde of Tanzania and the Yoruba of Nigeria.

Items made from the said handcraft industries were to be sold in exchange with other products like agricultural products, animal products etc.

THE MAP OF TRANS SAHARAN TRADE ROUTES

BASIC ASSIGNMENT/ACTIVITIES TO DO

1. Define the following terms Technology Agriculture Trade Environment Development
2. List the four agricultural processes that were carried out among the different societies in East Africa.
3. Mention any four advantages and effects of agriculture to the different African societies.
4. Mention the different handcrafts that existed in pre-colonial African societies.
5. Outline the different types of trade that where present in the pre-colonial African societies.
6. What factors contributed to the development of Trans Saharan trade?
7. Mention the different regions that participated in the Trans Saharan trade.
8. Mention four notorious and professional long distance traders.
9. List the different methods in the obtaining and processing of salt in the pre-colonial African societies.
10. What factors gave rise to the Trans Saharan trade?
11. List four principles of trade routes that were used in Trans Saharan slave trade.
12. What were the impacts or effects of Trans Saharan trade?

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS

Kinship of Clan Organization

The Meaning of the Kinship or Clans

Explain the meaning of the kinship or clan

Prior to European colonization in the late 19th century, Africa had a very long history of state building as well as a rich variety of social formations that were decentralized or stateless.

The Social, Political and Economic Organization of Kinship or Clans

Explain the social, political and economic organization of kinship or clan

Clan Organization

Leaders in the clan organisation were chosen by a heritage system that was either matrilineal or patrilineal. Matrilineal systems are based on the mother’s side and patrilineal systems are based on father’s side e.g. of matrilineal societies are Makonde and Zanaki, while the Sukuma and Pare are good examples of patrilineal societies.

The clan leader had a lot of functions such as:

Note: The clan leaders in Africa had local names e.g. Sukuma – Mtemi, Nyakyusa- Malafyale.

Chiefdom or Chieftain Organization

Therefore, the chiefdom organisation system was adopted by many societies that were under clan organisation. This included the Sukuma, Chagga, Nyakyusa, etc.

The functions of a chief in these societies were similar to that of the clan leader the difference is the chief had a larger area.

Age set system was a type of organisation which involved age and sex in distribution of activities.

Looking at the Maasai; they were organized as follows:

1. Soldiers
2. Increasing the herds of cattle by raiding from other societies
3. Moving with their cattle in need of water and grass
4. Religious leaders
5. Distributed resources e.g. Cattle

State organisation were systems of administration adopted by few African societies while having administrative organs, army and judiciary. Each organ was responsible for different activities. State Africa can be grouped as follows:

Inter lacustrine Region

• Buganda
• Bunyoro Kital

Others include

• Hehe
• Nyamwezi

Western Sudanic State

• Ghana
• Sangai
• Dahomey
• Fulani
• Oyo

Central Africa

• Nubiii
• Ethiopia

Age-set System

The Meaning of Age-Set System

Explain the meaning of age-set system

The Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Societies which Practiced the Age-Set System

Explain the social, political and economic organization of societies which practiced the age-set system

Ntemiship

The Meaning of the Ntemiship System

Explain the meaning of the ntemiship system

The Social, Political and Economic Organisation of Ntemiship

Explain the social, political and economic organization of Ntemiship

STATE ORGANISATION

The Meaning of State Organisation

Explain the meaning of state organization

State formation in Africa

Environmental factor

Location of a place e.g. in trading while some of the African States were near to the trading towns as they obtained tax and commodities.

Iron technology in Africa also helped in the development and rise of Africa states e.g. By Iron they made weapons like spears, Arrows, guns etc. weapons were useful on conquering small states eg. Buganda conquered Bunyaro-Kutoro, Nyankole.

Some states had good leadership and they were able to organise their states e.g. Shaka Zulu, Mirambo of Nyamwezi, Mkwawa of Hehe. Tunkumanin of Ghana, Sunsiata of Mali etc.

Men belonging to African societies were involved in long and short distance trade which led to:

• Outbreak of wars and migration
• Formal governments

Prime minister, council of elders, Provision chief, general commander and others like Abakungu, Abalangira.

Some states rose up due to the influence of the Islamic religion e.g. through the use of Jihad while states were turned into Islamic states. For instance in West Africa we see the Sokoto caliphate (under Uthman Dan fodio) who managed to conquer several states in the forest zone.

Some of African tribes had strong armies and had improved weapons for conquering other states. It is said that before the White man’s intrusion, Ghana had about 20,000 experienced soldiers and Mali had 10,000 soldiers.

Fall of some states in Africa

• Increase in size of states led to poor organisation and state management e.g. Ghana and other states.
• Wars and conquest while some of the states were conquered by strong states e.g. In Mfecane war about 100 states were conquered by Zulu.
• Slave trade in Africa also affected a lot of weak states while strong states managed to conquer small states e.g. Fulani in West Africa declined due to this.
• The system of obtaining leaders through heritage did not lead to the development of states but the fall of states that were following this system.
• The conflicts between Muslims and non-Muslims in some societies while non-Muslim societies being conjured by the Muslim societies.
• Weak leaders in some societies failed to organize their states leading to their decline.

STATES ORGANISATION

TYPES OF STATES IN AFRICA

1. Decentralized states (Non centralized)
2. Centralized states.

These emerged as a result of one powerful family to control other classes in domination of wealth and political power.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DECENTRALISED STATES

1. Most decentralized societies were small in terms of population and area.
2. Decentralized states had no political connection with a large kingdom.
3. Each village was politically separated and was not politically connected to neighboring villages.
4. Most decentralized societies did not have a system of chiefs.
5. Council of elders were religious leaders. Organizational structure of kinship ties lineage groups.

CENTRALISED KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES

Some African societies were large empires governed by kings, who had near absolute power. For Example:

1. North Africa – Egypt, Nubia, Axum in North East
2. Ghana, Mali, Soghai and Kaneroi Burnu in Western
3. Buganda, Karagwe, Ankole and Tero in East Africa

CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRALISED POLITICAL SYSTEMS

1. Presence of a king or queen.
2. The clan had to pay tribute to the monarchy
3. Availability of enough food to feed the settled population
4. The centralized authority was responsible for solving social disputes.

Example: Ancient Egypt

Origins: According to archaeological evidence, the Egyptian state arose between 1500 and 500 BC. The evidence also show that by this time there were already villages of self-sufficient producers who grew wheat, barley and kept animals. These producers formed permanent settlements as they increased in population.

The Factors that gave Rise to Centralized States and Non-Centralized States

Appraise the factors that gave rise to centralized states and non-centralized states

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE EGYPTIAN STATE

1. The development of agriculture and pastoralism
2. Specialization of labor
3. The rise of Nemes who united the upper and the lower Egypt
4. Development of local industries
5. Taxation
6. Strong Army
7. Development of productive forces

Therefore any one with the following rose to power:

1. Anyone who could control disasters by rituals and charms
2. Anyone who had experience and stored knowledge of floods
3. Anyone who had knowledge of predicting floods

CLASSES IN THE EGYPTIAN STATE

1. The ruling class- Consisted of the Pharaoh who was at the top followed by the nobility, priests, court officials and other officials- Followed by administrators of the people called the Vizier.
2. The working class
3. The peasants and slaves

ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia started as a small kingdom known as Axum, was founded near the red sea coast by a dynasty of Sabean from the other side of the Red Sea. The Ethiopia arose around 1000 BC

FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF THE ETHIOPIAN STATE

1. Strong leadership
2. Agriculture
3. Unity among the people
4. Growth of local industries
5. Strong army
6. Taxation
7. Christianity

CLASSES IN ETHIOPIA

1. Feudal Lords
2. Peasants (tenants and serfs)
3. Slaves.

Feudalism was consolidated by the introduction of Christianity during the 4th AD and King Ezana was the first to be converted. King Zangwe built 30 churches. A descendant of King Solomon and Queen Sheba.

Expansion done by 3 emperors (leaders):

1. Zangwe Dynasty – 12th C – 13th C
2. King Theodire – 19th C – 1855 – 1868
3. Menelik II – 19th C – 1889 – 1913 Menelik II made Addis Ababa his Capital

THE KINGDOM OF NUBIA

Nubia lay in the area that cut across the borders of modern Sudan, Egypt, and Ethiopia. The Nubian State arose around 200 BC. It was called Kush and its capital was Napata. In 3rd C the capital shifted to Meroe.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE/GROWTH OF THE NUBIAN STATE

1. Agricultural activities
2. Trade
3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. Gold and Ivory
4. Development of local industries

DECLINE OF NUBIA

1. Feudal lords were against the peasants
2. Attacks by Muslims
3. Disunity

WESTERN SUDANIC STATES

The early State in western Sudan was established in the region between the Sahara desert and the forest region of the South. The most important states are Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem Bornu

GENERAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF WESTERN SUDANIC STATES

1. Geographical location
2. Iron technology
3. The growth of population
4. Development of local industries
5. Taxation
6. Trans - Saharan trade
7. Availability of valuable goods e.g. gold
8. Good centralized government
9. Capable leaders
10. Strong army

GHANA EMPIRE

During its rise Ghana had two main towns, one occupied by Muslims and the other by Pagans. The rulers and the people were Soninke speaking group. The word Ghana as the King title emerged in 5th AD. The capital center of administration was Koumbi Saleh.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE GHANIAN EMPIRE

1. Agricultural activities
2. Availability of valuable goods e. g gold
3. Trans – Saharan trade in gold and salt
4. Good leadership and efficient system of government.
5. Common language.

FACTORS FOR THE DECLINE OF GHANA EMPIRE

1. Almoravids constant attacks
2. Disunity among people
3. Jihad wars
4. Lack of stable system of royal successions
5. The rise of rural kingdoms e.g. Mali

MALI EMPIRE

Early in the 3rd C Ghana fell apart as a result of the war between Samangwa the king of Ghana and Prince Sundiata Keita the king of Kagaba. Ghana was defeated and Ghana fell under Sundiata’s rulership. Sundiata formed a large kingdom known as Mali the capital was Niani and the title of the ruler was Mansa.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE MALI

1. The fall of Ghanaian empire
2. Control of gold fields of Bure
3. Strong army
4. Agricultural activities
5. Trans – Saharan trade
6. Strong leadership of Sundiata Keita and later Mauna Kan Kan Musa
7. Islamic faith which promoted libraries and Islamic universities.

DECLINE OF THE MALI EMPIRE

1. Weak leadership after the death of Mansa Mahmud IV
2. Empire became too large to control
3. Lack of unity and the empire was divided into three spheres of influence and they fought against each other.
4. Attacks by Tuaregs
5. Civil wars
6. The rise of Songhai empire

SONGHAI EMPIRE

In the late 15th Century the Songhai Empire originally the Gao, conquered neighboring states under the leadership of Sunni Ali and formed the large empire of Songhai. Gao became its capital at around the 11th C and remained the capital under the empire. Its famous leaders were Sunni Alli, Askia Mohamed and Askia Daud.

FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF SONGHAI EMPIRE

1. Agriculture activities
2. Strong army
3. Trans – Sahara trade
4. Good administration
5. Taxation
6. Islamic faith

DECLINE OF THE SONGHAI EMPIRE

1. Weak leadership after the death of Askia Daud
2. The Moroccan invasion
3. The empire was too large to control
4. Religious hostility between Islamic and traditional beliefs
5. The shift in orientation of trade towards the Atlantic

FOREST STATES

THE BENIN EMPIRE

Benin Empire was a very small state made up of the Edo speaking people. The highest authority at the time were chiefs known as Ogiso which meant the ‘Kings of the Sky’ and the administrative centre was Ubinu. Between1388 – 1431 there was a series of civil wars which divided the Edo. After the death of the last Ogiso, his son Prince Ekaladerhan left for exile and established himself in Ile-Ife, so when the Edo people requested his return, he sent his son, Prince Oranmiyan who took up the throne.

EXPANSION INTO CITY-STATE EMPIRE

By 15th C the empire expanded into a city-state under the leadership of Oba Ewuare the Great

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE

1. Some of capable rulers the greatest of whom was Ewuare
2. Good centralized system of Government
3. Trade
4. Unity
5. Development of Handicraft Industry

DECLINE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE

• Introduction of slave trade
• Trans- Atlantic trade
• Firearms introduced through European trade caused tribal wars that led to the final decline of the Benin Empire.

THE EMPIRE OF OYO

Oyo Empire began in the late 14th C or early 15th C likely 1388 – 1431. The people of Oyo were Oranmiyan, their capital was Oyo-Ile and the King of Oyo was called Alaafin. The Bashoran was the leader of the army.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE OYO EMPIRE

1. It had organized political system headed by a number of great Alafins
2. Strong organized army
3. Agricultural activities
4. Development of local industries
5. Slave trade
6. Dahomey tributary

DECLINE OF THE OYO EMPIRE

1. Conflict between Alafin and Basharon
2. Conquest from the Fulani and Dahomey
3. Civil wars and disunity

DAHOMEY EMPIRE

Dahomey rose after the decline of Oyo in the 19thC. it was founded by the Fon people. It had good leaders such as King Agaja and Houegbadja who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey.

THE RISE OF THE DAHOMEY EMPIRE IN THE 18th C

1. Growth of centralised and powerful monarchy
2. Boyul succession system was effective
3. Strong army
4. Good leadership of King Gezo and later Aguja
5. Control of slave trade

DECLINE OF DAHOMEY

Dahomey declined after the arrival of the French.

ASANTE EMPIRE

Asante or Ashanti Empire was found as a result of emergence of several cities in the region of Kumasi. The people of Asante were Akan ruled by the Oyuko clan. The King was Obiri Yeboa who was Osei Tutu. The capital city of Asante or Ashanti was Kumasi. The symbol of Asante union was a Golden stool. The ruler of Asante was known as Asantehene.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF ASANTE

1. Agricultural activities
2. Development of local industries
3. Some of its capable rulers e.g. Osei Tutu
4. Well organised political system
5. Trade

DECLINE - The state declined after the arrival of Europeans.

The Organisation of Centralised and Non-Centralised States

Explain the organization of centralized and non-centralized states

CENTRALISED STATES OF CENTRAL AFRICA

Example: Onya empire, it was founded in the 14th C. The head of the kingdom took the title of Munikongo or Mwekongo means lord of Kongo. The capital was Mbaza which the Portuguese later baptized Sutrador.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF KONGO EMPIRE

1. Technological development e.g. Iron technology
2. Trade
3. Taxation
4. Development of local industries
5. Emergence of traditional leaders with a strong belief in spiritual and magic power

DECLINE OF THE CONGO EMPIRE

• The arrival of the Portuguese
• Slave trade
• Weak leadership after Manikongo Mingo Mkuwa who acquired up an Embassy inPortugal. His son Mzingo Mbemba was baptized as Dan Alfonce. He was a puppet of thePortuguese and caused civil war in Kongo.

MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM

This Kingdom was created under the leadership of Mutola. Mutola conquered Tongu and Torura of the Zambezi valley. He acquired the title of Mwenemutapa which means ‘Master of conquered lands’. He was a political, military and religious leader. Mutola died in 1450 and his son Matope inherited, after Matope’s death in 1480 Changamire took over in 1490.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF MWENEMUTAPA

1. Agriculture activities
2. Good leadership of Mutola
3. Availability of valuable goods e.g. copper, iron and gold
4. They controlled trade routes
5. Trading centres

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF MWENEMUTAPA

1. The arrival of Portuguese who monopolized the gold trade
2. The kingdom became divided into two parts Mutapa and Ruzwi
3. Rebellion from local people

After the death of Matope, his son Nyahuma took over. He was younger than the other chief who wanted power so that chief rebelled and caused civil war.

THE LUBA STATE

This state is found between the tributaries of river Kongo. The Songiye people migrated from Katanga led by a leader from the Kangolo clan. The united Kaniok and from Luba kingdom, Ilungambila married into the Kangolo clan. This intermarriage gave rise to the Luba lineage of Kalala Ilunga, the founder of Munza as capital of Luba.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE LUBA STATE

1. Centralized system of administration where the kingdom had final say in wars and external trade
2. The development of trade
3. Agricultural activities
4. The presence of iron technology

THE LUNDA STATE

The center of the empire lay in the Valley of Nkala River. The Luba kings took the title of Mwanta. It began as a simple village and their first ruler was called Mwantagaand. Ilunga Tshibinda who came from Luba married a princess from the area and their son became the first paramount ruler of the Lunda State.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF LUNDA STATE

1. Iron technology
2. Development of local industries
3. Agriculture activities
4. Good leadership
5. Trade.

The empire declined after the arrival of Europeans